Where Can I Legally Harvest Ferns in Oregon

Year of vascular plants

Ferns Temporal range: Middle Age of Fishes[1]—Present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N
A fern unrolling a little frond
Knowledge base compartmentalization
Kingdom:	Kingdom Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Partition:	Polypodiophyta
Class:	Polypodiopsida Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm.
Subclasses[2]
Extant Equisetidae Marattiidae Ophioglossidae Polypodiidae Extinct †Cladoxylopsida †Zygopteridales †Stauropteridales †Rhacophytales
Synonyms
Monilophyta Polypodiophyta Filicophyta Filices

A fern (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta )^{[ acknowledgment needed ]} is a member of a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and take neither seeds nor flowers. They differ from mosses and new bryophytes by being vascular, i.e., having specialized tissues that conduct water and nutrients and in having life cycles in which the branched sporophyte is the possessive phase. Ferns have complex leaves called megaphylls, that are more complex than the microphylls of clubmosses. Most ferns are leptosporangiate ferns. They produce coiled fiddleheads that uncoil and expand into fronds. The aggroup includes about 10,560 known extant species. Ferns are defined here in the broad common sense, organism all of the Polypodiopsida, comprising both the leptosporangiate (Polypodiidae) and eusporangiate ferns, the last mentioned group including horsetails, whisk ferns, marattioid ferns, and ophioglossoid ferns.

Ferns commencement appear in the fossil record approximately 360 million years ago in the late Devonian, but galore of the current families and species did not appear until roughly 145 million days ago in the early Cretaceous, later lilylike plants came to dominate many environments. The fern Osmunda claytoniana is a preponderant example of evolutionary stasis; paleontological evidence indicates it has remained unchanged, even at the level of fossilized nuclei and chromosomes, for at to the lowest degree 180 trillion years.

Ferns are non of major economical importance, just some are used for food, medicine, as biofertilizer, every bit ornamental plants and for remediating contaminated soil. They have been the subject of research for their ability to remove roughly chemical pollutants from the atm. Some fern species, such as bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) and water fern (Azolla filiculoides) are prodigious weeds ecumenical. Some fern genera, such every bit Azolla, rump fixing atomic number 7 and establish a momentous input to the nitrogen nutrition of Sir Tim Rice paddies. They also play certain roles in folklore.

Description [edit]

Like the sporophytes of seed plants, those of ferns dwell of stems, leaves and roots. Ferns differ from seeded player plants in reproducing by spores. However they also differ from spore-producing bryophytes in that, like seed plants, they are Polysporangiophytes, their sporophytes branching and producing many sporangia. Besides unequal bryophytes, fern sporophytes are nonsymbiotic and exclusively briefly contingent on the maternal gametophyte.

Stems: Fern stems are often referred to as rhizomes, even though they grow subsurface only in some of the species. Plant species and many of the physical object ones throw above-ground creep stolons (e.g., Polypodiaceae), and many groups have supra-ground erect rig-woody trunks (e.g., Cyatheaceae). These keister reach adequate 20 meters (66 ft) tall in a few species (e.g., Genus Cyathea brownii on Norfolk Island and Cyathea medullaris in New Seeland).^[3]

Rif: The unripe, chemical process part of the plant is technically a megaphyll and in ferns, information technology is often referred to arsenic a frond. New leaves typically expand away the unrolling of a tight spiral called a crozier or fiddlehead into fronds.^[4] This uncurling of the flick is termed ring-shaped vernation. Leaves are divided into two types a trophophyll and a sporophyll. A trophophyll frond is a vegetive leaf analogous to the typical green leaves of seed plants that does not produce spores, instead only producing sugars by photosynthesis. A sporophyll frond is a potent flip that produces spores borne in sporangia that are usually clustered to mould sori. In most ferns, fertile leaves are morphologically very similar to the sterile ones, and they photosynthesize in the same way. In some groups, the fertile leaves are a lot narrower than the sterile leaves, and may even have no super tissue paper at entirely (e.g., Blechnaceae, Lomariopsidaceae). The anatomy of fern leaves can either be needle-shaped or highly partitioned. In tree ferns, the main stalk that connects the rif to the stem (known as the stipe), often has multiple leaflets. The leafy structures that grow from the stipe are familiar A pinnae and are oft again divided into smaller pinnules.^[5]

Roots: The underground not-photosynthetic structures that take up water and nutrients from soil. They are always stringy and structurally are very similar to the roots of seed plants.

Like all other vascular plants, the diploid sporophyte is the dominant phase or coevals in the life pedal. The gametophytes of ferns, however, are very different from those of seed plants. They are free-living and resemble liverworts, whereas those of germ plants develop within the spore wall and are dependent on the parent sporophyte for their nourishment. A fern gametophyte typically consists of:

• Prothallus: A green, photosynthetic structure that is one cell boneheaded, usually heart or kidney shaped, 3–10 mm long and 2–8 mm broad. The prothallus produces gametes away means of:
  • Antheridia: Pocket-size spherical structures that raise flagellate sperm.
  • Archegonia: A flaskful-shaped social structure that produces a single testicle at the tail, reached by the sperm cell by swimming behind the neck.
• Rhizoids: root-like structures (not true roots) that consist of unshared greatly elongated cells, that absorb water and stuff salts finished the whole social structure. Rhizoids linchpin the prothallus to the grime.

Taxonomy [cut]

Carl Carl von Linne (1753) originally established 15 genera of ferns and fern allies, classifying them in class Cryptogamia in cardinal groups, Filices (e.g. Polypodium) and Musci (mosses).^{[6] [7] [8]} By 1806 this had increased to 38 genera,^[9] and has more and more increased since (see Schuettpelz et al (2018) Figure 1). Ferns were traditionally sensitive in the class Filices, and later in a Division of the Flora Kingdom named Pteridophyta or Filicophyta. Pteridophyta is no more accepted arsenic a valid taxon because it is paraphyletic. The ferns are too referred to as Polypodiophyta Beaver State, when treated as a arm of Tracheophyta (tube plants), Polypodiopsida, although this key sometimes simply refers to leptosporangiate ferns. Traditionally, all of the spore producing vascular plants were conversationally denominated the pteridophytes, rendering the term synonymous with ferns and fern allies. This can be confusing because members of the division Pteridophyta were also denominated pteridophytes (sensu stricto).

Traditionally, three discrete groups have been denominated ferns: two groups of eusporangiate ferns, the families Ophioglossaceae (adder's tongues, moonworts, and grapevine ferns) and Marattiaceae; and the leptosporangiate ferns. The Marattiaceae are a primitive person group of tropical ferns with large, fleshy rhizomes and are now idea to be a sibling taxon to the leptosporangiate ferns. Several other groups of species were considered fern allies: the clubmosses, spikemosses, and quillworts in Lycopodiophyta; the whisk ferns of Psilotaceae; and the horsetails of Equisetaceae. Since this grouping is polyphyletic, the full term fern allies should personify abandoned, leave off in a historical context.^[10] To a greater extent recent genetic studies incontestable that the Lycopodiophyta are more distantly side by side other vascular plants, having radiated evolutionarily at the base of the tracheophyte clade, piece both the whisk ferns and horsetails are as closely related to leptosporangiate ferns as the ophioglossoid ferns and Family Marattiaceae. In fact, the whip ferns and ophioglossoid ferns are demonstrably a clade, and the horsetails and Marattiaceae are arguably some other clade.

Molecular phylogenetics [edit]

David Smith et al. (2006) carried out the first high-level nonflowering plant compartmentalisation published in the molecular phylogenetic era, and advised the ferns atomic number 3 monilophytes, as follows:^[11]

• Division Tracheophyta (tracheophytes) - tube-shaped structure plants
  • Sub sectionalisation Euphyllophytina (euphyllophytes)
    • Infradivision Moniliformopses (monilophytes)
    • Infradivision Spermatophyta - seed plants, ~260,000 species
  • Subdivision Lycopodiophyta (lycophytes) - less than 1% of living vascular plants

Building block information, which continue poorly constrained for umteen parts of the plants' phylogeny, bear been supplemented by geomorphological observations supporting the inclusion of Equisetaceae in the ferns, notably relating to the construction of their sperm and peculiarities of their roots.^[11] However, there remained differences of opinion about the locating of the genus Equisetum (determine Equisetopsida for boost discourse). Matchless possible solution was to denominate only the leptosporangiate ferns as "true ferns" while denominating the other three groups as fern allies. In drill, numerous classification schemes have been proposed for ferns and fern allies, and there has been flyspeck consensus among them.

The leptosporangiate ferns are sometimes named "true ferns".^[12] This aggroup includes most plants familiarly called ferns. Modern research supports elder ideas founded on morphology that the Family Osmundaceae diverged new in the evolutionary chronicle of the leptosporangiate ferns; in certain ways this family is intermediate 'tween the eusporangiate ferns and the leptosporangiate ferns. Rai and Graham (2010) broadly supported the primary groups, just queried their relationships, terminal that "at present perhaps the best that can be said almost all relationships among the major lineages of monilophytes in current studies is that we exercise non understand them very well".^[13] Grewe et al. (2013) confirmed the inclusion of horsetails inside ferns sensu lato, but also suggested that uncertainties remained in their precise placement.^[14] Other classifications have decorated Ophioglossales to the rank of a fifth part class, separating the whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns.^[14]

One problem with the categorisation of ferns is that of cryptic species. A cryptic species is a species that is morphologically connatural to another species, but differs genetically in slipway that prevent fertile interbreeding. A obedient example of this is the currently designated species Asplenium genus Trichomanes (maidenhair spleenwort). This is actually a species interlacing that includes distinct diploid and tetraploid races. In that location are fry but unclear morphological differences between the two groups, which prefer distinctly differing habitats. In numerous cases much every bit this, the species complexes have been separated into unconnected species, therefore raising the total number of species of ferns. Possibly many more cryptic species are yet to be discovered and designated.

Organic evolution [edit]

The ferns are associated to other higher order taxa, A shown in the following cladogram:^{[10] [15] [16] [2]}

Nomenclature and subdivision [edit]

The classification of Smith et al. (2006) treated ferns As four classes:^{[11] [17]}

• Equisetopsida (Sphenopsida) 1 order, Equisetales (Horsetails) ~ 15 species
• Psilotopsida 2 orders (whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns) ~92 species
• Marattiopsida 1 order, Marattiales ~ 150 species
• Polypodiopsida (Class Filicopsida) 7 orders (leptosporangiate ferns) ~ 9,000 species

Additionally they defined 11 orders and 37 families.^[11] That system was a consensus of a number of studies, and was further refined.^{[14] [18]} The phylogenetic relationships are shown in the pursual cladogram (to the level of orders).^{[11] [19] [14]} This division into four stellar clades was then confirmed using geomorphology alone.^[20]

Subsequently, Chase and Reveal thoughtful both lycopods and ferns as subclasses of a class Equisetopsida (Embryophyta) close whol land plants. This is referred to as Equisetopsida sensu lato to distinguish IT from the narrower use to refer to horsetails alone, Equisetopsida sensu stricto. They placed the lycopods into subclass Lycopodiidae and the ferns, guardianship the term monilophytes, into cinque subclasses, Equisetidae, Ophioglossidae, Psilotidae, Marattiidae and Polypodiidae, by dividing Metalworker's Psilotopsida into its cardinal orders and elevating them to subclass (Ophioglossidae and Psilotidae).^[16] Christenhusz et al.^[a] (2011) followed this habituate of subclasses but recombined Smith's Psilotopsida as Ophioglossidae, giving four subclasses of ferns once more.^[21]

Christenhusz and Chase after (2014) developed a new classification of ferns and lycopods. They utilised the term Polypodiophyta for the ferns, subdivided like Smith et alia. into four groups (shown with equivalents in the Smith system), with 21 families, approximately 212 genera and 10,535 species;^[10]

• Equisetidae (=Equisetopsida) - taxonomic category (Equisetales, Equisetaceae, Equisetum) horsetails ~ 20 species)
• Ophioglossidae (=Psilotopsida) - 2 taxon orders ~ 92 species
• Marattiidae (=Marattiopsida) - 1 monotypic order (Marattiales, Marattiaceae, 2 subfamilies) ~ 130 species
• Polypodiidae (=Polypodiopsida) - 7 orders

This was a right smart reduction in the number of families from the 37 in the system of Smith et al.., since the approach was Thomas More that of lumping sooner than splitting. For instance a turn of families were reduced to subfamilies. Subsequently, a consensus group was formed, the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (PPG), analogous to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, publishing their first complete classification in November 2016. They recognise ferns Eastern Samoa a class, the Polypodiopsida, with tetrad subclasses as delineate by Christenhusz and Dog, and which are phylogenetically related as therein cladogram:^[2]

In the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), the Polypodiopsida consist of four subclasses, 11 orders, 48 families, 319 genera, and an estimated 10,578 species.^[22] Gum olibanum Polypodiopsida in the broad sense (sensu lato) as used by the PPG (Polypodiopsida sensu PPG I) needs to be grand from the narrower usage (sensu stricto) of Joseph Smith et al. (Polypodiopsida sensu Captain John Smith et al.)^[2] Classification of ferns remains unresolved and controversial with competing viewpoints (rending vs lumping) between the systems of the PPG on the one hand and Christenhusz and Chase along the other, severally. In 2018, Christenhusz and Chase explicitly argued against recognizing every bit galore genera American Samoa PPG I.^{[8] [23]}

Comparison of fern subdivisions in some classifications

Smith et al.. (2006)[11]	Chase & Reveal (2009)[16]	Christenhusz et atomic number 13. (2011)[21]	Christenhusz & Chase (2014, 2018)[10] [24]	PPG I (2016)[2]
ferns (no rank)	monilophytes (no rank)	ferns (monilophytes) (no gross)	ferns (Polypodiophyta) (no rank)	Class Polypodiopsida
Class Equisetopsida	Subclass Equisetidae	Subclass Equisetidae	Subclass Equisetidae	Subclass Equisetidae
Class Psilotopsida	Subclass Ophioglossidae   Subclass Psilotidae	Subclass Ophioglossidae	Subclass Ophioglossidae	Subclass Ophioglossidae
Class Marattiopsida	Subclass Marattiidae	Subclass Marattiidae	Subclass Marattiidae	Subclass Marattiidae
Assort Polypodiopsida	Subclass Polypodiidae	Subclass Polypodiidae	Subclass Polypodiidae	Subclass Polypodiidae

Evolution and biogeography [edit]

Fern-similar taxa (Wattieza) primary seem in the fossil record in the midst Age of Fishes period, ca. 390 Mya. By the Triassic, the first tell apart of ferns related to individual modern families appeared. The zealous fern radiation occurred in the late Cretaceous, when many modern families of ferns first appeared.^{[25] [1] [26] [27]} Ferns evolved to cope with low-casual conditions present subordinate the canopy of angiosperms. Signally, the fern photoreceptor neochrome was obtained via horizontal gene transfer from a bryophyte lineage.^[28]

Distribution and habitat [edit]

Ferns are widespread in their distribution, with the greatest mellowness in the Torrid Zone, and least in cold areas. The greatest diversity occurs in tropical rainforests.^[29] New Zealand, for which the fern is a symbolic representation, has about 230 species, encyclical throughout the country.^[30]

Bionomics [edit]

Ferns at John Muir Woods, CA

Fern species live in a wide variety of habitats, from remote mountain elevations, to dry desert shake faces, bodies of water or open fields. Ferns generally may constitute thought of as largely organism specialists in narrow habitats, oftentimes next in places where various environmental factors point of accumulation the success of roselike plants. Some ferns are among the world's most serious smoke species, including the bracken fern growing in the Scottish Highlands of Scotland, Beaver State the mosquito fern (Azolla) ontogenesis in tropical lakes, both species forming large sharply spreading colonies. There are four fastidious types of habitats that ferns are found in: moist, shady forests; crevices in shake faces, particularly when sheltered from the orotund sun; acid wetlands including bogs and swamps; and tropical trees, where many species are epiphytes (something like a stern to a third of all fern species).^[31]

Especially the epiphytic ferns have turned out to be hosts of a huge multifariousness of invertebrates. It is assumed that bird's-nest ferns alone take up to half the invertebrate biomass within a hectare of rainforest canopy.^[32]

Umpteen ferns depend on associations with mycorrhizal kingdom Fungi. Many ferns grow only inside specific pH ranges; for example, the climbing fern (Lygodium palmatum) of eastern North America will grow only in moist, intensely acrid soils, while the bulblet fern (Cystopteris bulbifera), with an overlapping order, is plant only along limestone.

The spores are rich in lipids, protein and calories, so some vertebrates eat these. The European woodmouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) has been found to eat the spores of Culcita macrocarpa, and the Pyrrhula pyrrhula (Pyrrhula murina) and the New Sjaelland lesser short-caudated bat (Mystacina tuberculata) also eat fern spores.^[33]

Life cycle [edit]

Ferns are vascular plants differing from lycophytes by having true leaves (megaphylls), which are often pinnate. They dissent from ejaculate plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) in reproducing past means of spores and they miss flowers and seeds. Ilk totally land plants, they have a biography hertz referred to as alternation of generations, characterized by alternating diploid sporophytic and haploidic gametophytic phases. The diploid sporophyte has 2n paired chromosomes, where n varies from species to species. The haploidic gametophyte has n unpaired chromosomes, i.e. half the number of the sporophyte. The gametophyte of ferns is a free-living organism, whereas the gametophyte of the gymnosperms and angiosperms is dependent on the sporophyte.

The life cycle of a typical fern proceeds As follows:

1. A diploid sporophyte phase produces haploid spores by meiosis (a process of cellular division which reduces the number of chromosomes by a one-half).
2. A spore grows into a at large-living haploid gametophyte aside mitosis (a process of cellular division which maintains the number of chromosomes). The gametophyte typically consists of a photosynthetic prothallus.
3. The gametophyte produces gametes (ofttimes both sperm and eggs on the same prothallus) by mitosis.
4. A mobile, flagellate sperm fertilizes an egg that remains attached to the prothallus.
5. The fertilized egg is now a diploid zygote and grows by mitosis into a diploid sporophyte (the true fern plant).

Uses [edit]

Ferns are not as important economically Eastern Samoa ejaculate plants, but have hefty importance in whatsoever societies. Some ferns are used for nutrient, including the fiddleheads of Pteridium aquilinum (bracken), Pteretis struthiopteris (Struthio camelus fern), and Osmundastrum cinnamomeum (cinnamon fern). Diplazium esculentum is too used in the tropics (for instance in budu pakis, a traditional ravisher of Brunei^[34]) as food. Tubers from the "para", Ptisana salicina (king fern) are a traditional food in New Zealand and the South Pacific. Fern tubers were used for food 30,000 long time agone in Europe.^{[35] [36]} Fern tubers were utilised by the Guanches to draw gofio in the Canaries. Ferns are by and large not known to embody inedible to humans.^[37] Licorice fern rhizomes were chewed by the natives of the Pacific Northwest for their flavor.^{[ citation needed ]}

Ferns of the genus Azolla, commonly known as aquatic fern or mosquito ferns are rattling half-size, floating plants that do not resemble ferns. The mosquito ferns are used every bit a biological fertilizer in the rice paddies of southeast Asia, taking advantage of their ability to fix nitrogen from the air into compounds that can past be utilised by other plants.

Ferns have proved resistant to herbivorous insects. The gene that express the protein Tma12 in an eatable fern, Tectaria macrodonta, has been transferred to cotton plants, which became resistant to whitefly infestations.^[38]

Many ferns are grown in gardening as landscape plants, for cut foliation and equally houseplants, especially the Boston fern (Nephrolepis exaltata) and other members of the genus Nephrolepis. The bird nest fern (Asplenium focal point) is also hot, arsenic are the staghorn ferns (genus Platycerium). Continual (also known equally hardy) ferns planted in gardens in the northern cerebral hemisphere likewise make a sizeable following.^{[ citation requisite ]}

Several ferns, much as bracken^[39] and Genus Azolla ^[40] species are noxious widow's weeds or encroaching species. Further examples let in Japanese climb fern (Lygodium japonicum), bead fern (Onoclea sensibilis) and Giant pee fern (Salvinia molesta), one of the world's worst aquatic weeds.^{[ citation necessary ] [41]} The important fogey fire coal consists of the remains of noncivilized plants, including ferns.^{[ citation required ]}

Ferns have been studied and found to be useful in the removal of heavy metals, especially arsenic, from the grunge. Other ferns with close to scheme significance include:^{[ citation needed ]}

• Genus Dryopteris filix-mas (manly fern), used as a anthelminthic, and formerly in the US Pharmacopeia; as wel, this fern incidentally sprouting in a nursing bottle resulted in Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward's 1829 invention of the terrarium or Wardian case
• Rumohra adiantiformis (floral fern), extensively used in the florist business deal
• Microsorum genus Pteropus (Java fern), one of the most favorite freshwater fish tank plants.
• Osmunda regalis (royal fern) and Osmunda cinnamomea (cinnamon fern), the root character being used horticulturally; the fiddleheads of O. cinnamomea are also used as a cooked vegetable
• Matteuccia struthiopteris (ostrich fern), the fiddleheads utilized as a boiled vegetable in North America
• Pteridium aquilinum and Pteridium esculentum (bracken), the fiddleheads in use as a cooked vegetable in Nippon and are believed to be causative the high rate of stomach cancer in Japan. It is also one of the human beings's about probative agricultural widow's weeds, especially in the British Highlands of Scotland, and often poisons cattle and horses.
• Diplazium esculentum (vegetable fern), a source of food for some societies
• Pteris vittata (brake fern), used to absorb arsenic from the soil
• Licorice fern (licorice fern), roots chewed for their pleasant flavor
• Tree ferns, used as building material in some tropical areas
• Cyathea cooperi (Australian tree fern), an important invasive species in Hawaii
• Ceratopteris richardii, a model plant for teaching and research, ofttimes called C-fern

Culture [edit]

Blätter des Manns Walfarn. by Alois Auer, Vienna: Imperial Printing Authority, 1853

Pteridologist [cut]

The subject field of ferns and some other pteridophytes is titled pteridology. A pteridologist is a specialist in the study of pteridophytes in a broader sense that includes the more distantly direct lycophytes.

Pteridomania [edit]

Pteridomania is a term for the Victorian era craze of fern assembling and fern motifs in decorative art including pottery, methamphetamine, metals, textiles, wood, written paper, and sculpture "appearing along everything from christening presents to gravestones and memorials." The fashion for growing ferns indoors led to the development of the Wardian case, a glazed storage locker that would exclude air pollutants and hold up the obligatory humidness.^[42]

The dried mannequin of ferns was also used in past arts, beingness used as a stencil operating room directly inked for use in a design. The botanical work, The Ferns of U.K. and Ireland, is a notable example of this type of nature printing. The process, patented by the creative person and publisher Henry Ray Douglas Bradbur, affected a specimen happening to a soft lead plate. The first issue to demonstrate this was Alois Auer's The Discovery of the Nature Printing-Process.

Fern parallel bars were popular in America in the 1970s and 80s.

Folklore [edit]

Ferns figure in folklore, for exercise in legends all but mythical flowers or seeds.^[43] In Slavic folklore, ferns are believed to salad days once a twelvemonth, during the Ivan Kupala night. Although supposed to glucinium extremely difficult to find, anyone who sees a fern flower is thought to be guaranteed to cost elated and rich for the rest of their life. Similarly, Finnish custom holds that one who finds the seed of a fern in bloom along Midsummer night bequeath, aside possession of information technology, be radio-controlled and be able to go out invisibly to the locations where eternally blazing Will o' the wisps called aarnivalkea mark the spot of invisible treasure. These spots are protected by a piece that prevents anyone but the fern-seed bearer from always knowing their locations.^[44] In the US, ferns are thought process to have magical properties such as a dry fern can be thrown and twisted into red-hot coals of a fire to exorcize evil spirits, or sens from a burning fern is thought to run off snakes and such creatures.^[45]

Inexperienced Zealand [edit out]

Organisms stupid with ferns [edit out]

Misnomers [edit]

Several non-fern plants (and even animals) are called ferns and are sometimes puddingheaded with ferns. These include:

• Asparagus fern—This may apply to one of several species of the liliopsid genus Asparagus, which are flowering plants.
• Sweetfern—A flowering shrub of the genus Comptonia.
• Air fern—A group of animals called hydroid that are distantly related to jellyfish and corals. They are harvested, dried, dyed green, so sold as a plant that can live on line. While it Crataegus laevigata look like a fern, it is but the skeleton of this complex animal.
• Fern bush—Chamaebatiaria millefolium—a Rosaceae shrub with fern-comparable leaves.
• Fern tree diagram—Jacaranda mimosifolia—an cosmetic tree of the order Lamiales.
• Fern leaf tree—Filicium decipiens—an ornamental tree of the order Sapindales.

Fern-like flowering plants [edit out]

Some flowering plants so much as palms and members of the cultivated carrot family induce pinnated leaves that somewhat resemble fern fronds. Notwithstandin, these plants have fully developed seeds contained in fruits, rather than the microscopic spores of ferns.

Verandah [edit]

• 

  Polypodiopsida Fern

• 

  Polypodiopsida Fern

• 

• 

  Fern leaf, credibly Blechnum nudum

• 

  A tree diagram fern unrolling a new frond

• 

  Tree fern, in all probability Dicksonia antarctica

• 

  Tree ferns, probably Dicksonia Antarctica

• 

• 

  Unknown tree fern in Oaxaca

• 

  Leaf of fern

• 

  Unidentified fern with spores showing in Rotorua, NZ.

• 

• 

  A young, newly formed fern frond

• 

  Pyrrosia piloselloides, Dragon's Scale, in Malaysia

• 

  Fern growing on a wall

• 

  Spores of Dryopteris filix-mas

• 

  Thrichomanes reniforme, the Kidney Fern

See also [blue-pencil]

• Brits Pteridological Fellowship
• Chirosia betuleti - Fern gall
• Fern spike
• Fern sports
• Paisley (design)
• Pteridophyte
• Silver fern flag

Notes [edit]

1. ^ United States President, International Association of Pteridologists

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Gertrude Stein et al 2007.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} Pteridophyte Phylogenesis Aggroup 2016.
3. ^ Large, Mark F.; Braggins, John E. (2004). Tree Ferns . Timber Fight. ISBN0881926302.
4. ^ McCausland 2019.
5. ^ "Fern Fronds". Basic Biology. Retrieved 6 December 2014.
6. ^ Undergrowth 1903.
7. ^ Linnaeus 1753.
8. ^ ^{a b} Schuettpelz et al 2018.
9. ^ Swartz 1806.
10. ^ ^{a b c d} Christenhusz & Chase 2014.
11. ^ ^{a b c d e f} John Smith et Alabama.2006.
12. ^ Stace, Clive (2010b). Novel Flora of the British Isles (3rd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. xxviii. ISBN978-0-521-70772-5.
13. ^ Rai, Hardeep S. & Graham, Sean W. (2010). "Utility of a large, multigene plastid data set in inferring higher-order relationships in ferns and relatives (monilophytes)". American Journal of Botany. 97 (9): 1444–1456. doi:10.3732/ajb.0900305. PMID 21616899. , p. 1450
14. ^ ^{a b c d} Grewe, Felix; et Alabama. (2013). "Complete plastid genomes from Ophioglossum californicum, Psilotum nudum, and Equisetum hyemale let on an ancestral land plant genome structure and resolve the placement of Equisetales among monilophytes". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 13 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-8. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC3553075. PMID 23311954.
15. ^ Cantino et al 2007.
16. ^ ^{a b c} Chase & Reveal 2009.
17. ^ Schuettpelz 2007, Table I.
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19. ^ Cardinal, F-W; Kuo, L-Y; Rothfels, CJ; Ebihara, A; Chiou, W-L; et al. (2011). "rbcL and matK Earn Two Thumbs Up as the Core DNA Barcode for Ferns". PLOS ONE. 6 (10): e26597. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626597L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026597. PMC3197659. PMID 22028918.
20. ^ Schneider et al 2009.
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28. ^ Fifty-one, F.-W.; Villarreal, J. C.; Kelly, S.; Rothfels, C. J.; Melkonian, M.; Frangedakis, E.; Ruhsam, M.; Sigel, E. M.; Der, J. P.; Pittermann, J.; Burge, D. O.; Pokorny, L.; Larsson, A.; Chen, T.; Weststrand, S.; Doubting Thomas, P.; Carpenter, E.; Zhang, Y.; Tian, Z.; Chen, L.; Yan, Z.; Zhu, Y.; Sun, X.; Wang, J.; Stevenson, D. W.; Crandall-Stotler, B. J.; Shaw, A. J.; Deyholos, M. K.; Soltis, D. E.; Graham, S. W.; Windham, M. D.; Langdale, J. A.; Wong, G. K.-S.; Mathews, S.; Pryer, K. M. (6 Crataegus laevigata 2014). "Naiant transfer of an adaptive chimeric photoreceptor from bryophytes to ferns". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (18): 6672–6677. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.6672L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1319929111. PMC4020063. PMID 24733898.
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38. ^ Shukla, Anoop Kumar; Upadhyay, Santosh Kumar; Mishra, Manisha; Saurabh, Sharad; Singh, Rahul; Singh, Harpal; Thakur, Nidhi; Rai, Preeti; Pandey, Paras; Hans, Aradhana L.; Srivastava, Subhi; Rajapure, Vikram; Yadav, Sunil Kumar; Singh, Mithlesh Kumar; Kumar, Jitendra; Chandrashekar, K.; Verma, Praveen C.; Singh, Ajit Pratap; Nair, K. N.; Bhadauria, Smrati; Wahajuddin, Muhammad; Singh, Sarika; Sharma, Sharad; Omkar, null; Upadhyay, Ram Sanmukh; Ranade, Shirish A.; Tuli, Rakesh; Singh, Pradhyumna Kumar (26 October 2016). "Expression of an pesticide fern protein in cotton plant protects against whitefly". Nature Biotechnology. 34 (10): 1046–1051. doi:10.1038/nbt.3665. PMID 27598229. S2CID 384923.
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Bibliography [edit]

Books and theses [edit]

• Christenhusz, Maarten M.J.; Fay, Michael; Byng, James W. (2018). The Spheric Flora: Special Variation: GLOVAP Nomenclature Part 1. Plant Gateway Ltd. ISBN978-0-9929993-6-0.
• Linnaeus, Carl (1753). "Cryptogamia: Filices Musci". Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas. 1. Stockholm: Impensis Laurentii Salvii. pp. 1061–1100, 1100–1130. , see also Species Plantarum
• Lord, Thomas R. (2006). Ferns and Fern Allies of Pennsylvania. Indiana, Daddy: Pinelands Press. Ferns and Fern Allies of Pennsylvania - Thomas Reeves Almighty
• Moran, Robbin C. (2004). A Natural History of Ferns. Portland, OR: Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-667-1.
• Ranker, Tom A.; Haufler, Christopher H. (2008). Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-87411-3.
• Schuettpelz, Eric (2007). "Table 1". The evolution and diversification of epiphytic ferns (PDF) (PhD thesis). Duke University.
• Swartz, Olof (1806). Precis filicum: earum genera et species systematice complectens: adjectis lycopodineis, et descriptionibus novarum et rariorum specierum: cum tabulis aeneis quinque. Kiliae: Impensis Bibliopolii novi academici.

Journal articles [edit]

• Berry, Chris (2009). "The Middle Devonian plant collections of Francois Stockmans reconsidered". Geologica Belgica. 12 (1–2): 25–30.
• Bomfleur, B.; McLoughlin, S.; Vajda, V. (20 March 2014). "Fossilized Nuclei and Chromosomes Reveal 180 Million Eld of Genomic Stasis in Royal Ferns". Science. 343 (6177): 1376–1377. Bibcode:2014Sci...343.1376B. DoI:10.1126/science.1249884. PMID 24653037. S2CID 38248823.
• Cantino, Philip D.; Doyle, James A.; Graham, Sean W.; Judd, Walter S.; Olmstead, Richard G.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Donoghue, Michael J. (1 August 2007). "Towards a Phylogenetic Nomenclature of Tracheophyta". Taxon. 56 (3): 822. doi:10.2307/25065865. JSTOR 25065865.
• Chase, Mark W. & Reveal, King James I L. (2009). "A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III". Botanical Daybook of the Linnean Bon ton. 161 (2): 122–127. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x.
• Christenhusz, Maarten JM & Byng, J. W. (2016). "The number of familiar plants species in the world and its period increase". Phytotaxa. Magnolia Press. 261 (3): 201–217. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1.
• Christenhusz, M. J. M.; Zhang, X. C.; Schneider, H. (18 February 2011). "A linear sequence of extant families and genera of lycophytes and ferns". Phytotaxa. 19 (1): 7. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.19.1.2.
• Christenhusz, Maarten J.M.; Trail, Tag W. (2014). "Trends and concepts in fern assortment". Annals of Botany. 113 (4): 571–594. doi:10.1093/aob/mct299. PMC3936591. PMID 24532607.
• Christenhusz, Maarten J.M.; Trail, Mark W. (1 June 2018). "PPG recognises too many fern genera". Taxonomic category. 67 (3): 481–487. doi:10.12705/673.2.
• May, Lenore Wile (1978). "The economic uses and associated folklore of ferns and fern allies". The Botanical Look back. 44 (4): 491–528. doi:10.1007/BF02860848. S2CID 42101599.
• Melan, M. A.; Whittier, D. P. (1990). "Effects of Inorganic Nitrogen Sources on Spore Germination and Gametophyte Growth in Genus Botrychium Dissectum". Plant, Cell and Environment. 13 (5): 477–82. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3040.1990.tb01325.x.
• Pryer, Kathleen M.; Schneider, Harald; Smith, Alan R.; Cranfill, Raymond; Woman chaser, Paul G.; Hunt, Jeffrey S.; Sipes, Sedonia D. (2001). "Horsetails and ferns are a monophyletic group and the closest living relatives to ejaculate plants". Nature. 409 (6820): 618–622. Bibcode:2001Natur.409..618S. doi:10.1038/35054555. PMID 11214320. S2CID 4367248.
• Pryer, Kathleen M.; Schuettpelz, Eric; Beast, Paul G.; Schneider, Harald; Smith, Alan R.; Cranfill, Raymond (2004). "Phylogeny and evolution of ferns (monilophytes) with a focus on the early leptosporangiate divergences". American Journal of Flora. 91 (10): 1582–1598. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1582. PMID 21652310.
• Pteridophyte Phylogenesis Group (November 2016). "A residential area-plagiarised sorting for extant lycophytes and ferns". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 54 (6): 563–603. doi:10.1111/jse.12229. S2CID 39980610.
• Schneider, Harald; Smith, Alan R.; Pryer, Kathleen M. (1 July 2009). "Is Morphology Really at Odds with Molecules in Estimating Fern Organic evolution?". Systematic Botany. 34 (3): 455–475. doi:10.1600/036364409789271209. S2CID 85855934.
• Schuettpelz, Eric; Rouhan, Seminal; Pryer, Kathleen M.; Rothfels, Carl J.; Prado, President Jefferson; Sundue, Michael A.; Windham, Michael D.; Moran, Robbin C.; Bessie Smith, Alan R. (1 June 2018). "Are in that respect too many fern genera?". Taxon. 67 (3): 473–480. doi:10.12705/673.1.
• Metalworker, Alan R.; Kathleen M. Pryer; Eric Schuettpelz; Petra Korall; Harald Schneider; Paul G. Wolf (2006). "A classification for extant ferns" (PDF). Taxon. 55 (3): 705–731. Department of the Interior:10.2307/25065646. JSTOR 25065646.
• Stein, W. E.; Mannolini, F.; Hernick, L. V.; Landling, E.; Berry, C. M. (2007). "Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the secret of the Terra firma's earliest forest stumps at Gilboa". Nature. 446 (7138): 904–907. Bibcode:2007Natur.446..904S. doi:10.1038/nature05705. PMID 17443185. S2CID 2575688.
• Radoslaw Janusz Walkowiak (2017). "Assortment of Pteridophytes - Short-range categorisation of the ferns" (PDF). IEA Paper. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.29934.20809.
• Underwood, L. M. (1903). "The early writers on ferns and their collections.— I. Linnaeus, 1707-1778". Torreya. 3 (10): 145–150. ISSN 0096-3844. JSTOR 40594126.

Websites [delete]

• McCausland, Jim (22 February 2019). "Rediscover ferns". Garden plants. Sunset Magazine. Retrieved 22 Nov 2019.
• "Pteridopsida: Fossil Record". Plants: Pteridopsida. University of California Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
• "Classifying and identifying ferns". Scientific discipline Learning Hub. The University of Waikato. 3 September 2018. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
• Mickel, John T.; Wagner, Warren H.; Gifford, Ernest M.; et aluminum. (4 Feb 2019). "Fern". Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 24 November 2019.
• Hassler, Michael; Schmitt, Bernd (2 November 2019). "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the International". World Ferns. Botanical Garden of the Karlsruhe Institute of Applied science. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
• Pryer, Kathleen M; Smith, Alan R; Rothfels, Carl (2009). "Polypodiopsida". Tree of Life.
• A classification of the ferns and their allies
• A fern Holy Scripture bibliography
• Register of fossil Pteridophyta
• L. James Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (2004 onwards). The Ferns (Filicinae) of the British Isles.
• Ferns and Pteridomania in Prissy Scotland
• Not-seed found images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
• "American Fern Club"
• "British Phytology Social club"
• Images of ferns of Hawaii

Outer links [edit]

Where Can I Legally Harvest Ferns in Oregon

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern

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